Lady liberty
Sexism, as a societal and systemic issue, has roots deeply embedded in the evolution of human civilization. To understand the perpetuation of gender inequality, it is crucial to explore its origins in early human societies. From the beginning of humankind, biological differences between males and females played a role in the division of labor, but the question remains: were these divisions a reflection of a natural hierarchy or a social construction?
The evolution of gender over time is a complex process that developed alongside the broader biological and social evolution of species, including humans. In its most basic form, gender differentiation has deep evolutionary roots, initially tied to reproduction. The earliest life forms, which reproduced asexually, did not require gender. However, as sexual reproduction emerged—estimated to have developed around 1.2 billion years ago—it introduced the differentiation between sexes. The purpose of sexual reproduction was to increase genetic diversity, a mechanism that helped organisms adapt and survive in changing environments. In many species, including early fishlike animals, this differentiation eventually led to the development of male and female roles, where males generally produced smaller, mobile sperm and females produced larger, nutrient-rich eggs. These biological roles marked the beginning of sex differences that would later influence social gender roles in more complex organisms.
As vertebrates transitioned from water to land, more complex reproductive strategies emerged, particularly in amphibians, reptiles, and later mammals. In mammals, including early primates, the distinction between male and female became more pronounced due to the need for internal fertilization, gestation, and parental care. Female mammals, particularly, evolved to bear the burden of gestation, lactation, and care for young, while males often took on roles related to competition for mates and resource acquisition, though these roles varied across species. In some species, such as early hominins, this led to a division of labor, where females typically focused on caregiving and gathering, while males often hunted or defended territory. These evolutionary pressures began to shape behaviors and societal roles related to gender, which extended beyond just biological reproduction and survival.
While the general view of male and female genders is based on reproductive roles, it is important to recognize that biological diversity exists beyond the binary framework. The idea that all individuals fit neatly into male or female categories does not capture the full complexity of human biology. Throughout evolution, nature has produced many variations in sex characteristics that challenge rigid definitions of gender. For instance, some individuals are born with intersex traits, which means they possess physical characteristics or chromosomal patterns that do not align strictly with typical male or female categories. These variations include differences in chromosomes, hormones, or reproductive organs.
One such example is Klinefelter syndrome, where individuals have an extra X chromosome (XXY) instead of the usual male (XY) or female (XX) pattern. People with Klinefelter syndrome often have physical traits associated with both male and female development, but their reproductive functions may be impaired. Similarly, androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) affects individuals who are genetically male (XY) but have bodies that partially or completely do not respond to male hormones (androgens), resulting in physical traits that may appear more typically female.
In addition to chromosomal variations, there are also individuals born with atypical development of reproductive or sexual anatomy, sometimes referred to as intersex conditions. This can include people who have ambiguous genitalia or a combination of male and female internal reproductive organs. These variations highlight that biological sex is not strictly binary but exists on a spectrum, challenging the idea that all humans can be categorized as entirely male or female. Evolution has produced these variations naturally over time, and they demonstrate the flexibility and adaptability of biological systems. In human societies, individuals with non-binary or intersex traits have existed throughout history, often with diverse cultural responses. In many cases, they were accepted or even revered in certain cultures.
In the earliest human societies, humans organized themselves into small bands of hunter-gatherers, relying on a mix of foraging and hunting for subsistence. It is commonly believed that men hunted while women gathered, but this oversimplification neglects the complexity and flexibility of gender roles in these early societies. Gender-based labor divisions likely arose not from an innate difference in ability but from practical concerns such as child-rearing, physical strength, and social cohesion.
Archaeological evidence indicates that the majority of the caloric intake in early hunter-gatherer societies came from foraging, a task primarily undertaken by women. This contradicts the long-held stereotype that men were the primary providers of food through hunting. Women’s role in gathering not only provided nutritional sustenance but also made them crucial economic contributors. In many early hunter-gatherer societies, it is estimated that 60% to 80% of the caloric intake came from gathering, primarily performed by women, while 20% to 40% came from hunting, typically attributed to men. This varies depending on the environment, region, and specific community, but overall, gathering provided a more consistent and reliable source of food compared to hunting, which was often sporadic and less predictable.
Hunting, typically attributed to men, was often a strategy used when other food sources were scarce or unreliable, rather than being a primary means of sustenance, with foraging providing the majority of daily nutrition. While men’s roles in hunting are frequently emphasized, women also participated in hunting in various capacities across different regions and time periods. Recent studies suggest that in some hunter-gatherer societies, up to 30-50% of women participated in hunting activities, challenging the traditional notion that hunting was exclusively a male task and highlighting the flexible gender roles in early human communities.
While there was a degree of specialization in tasks between genders, early human societies were likely more egalitarian than later agricultural civilizations. In many hunter-gatherer groups, the survival of the group depended on cooperation, and rigid gender roles were not strictly enforced. Flexibility in labor allowed individuals to take on different roles as needed by the group, and there is little evidence to suggest that one gender dominated the other during this period.
Some anthropologists argue that early human societies exhibited gender fluidity, with individuals taking on roles based on situational demands rather than fixed gender identities. This challenges modern binary notions of gender and suggests that strict gender roles may be a more recent development.
In early human societies, kinship structures often determined social roles more than gender. Social organization was based on extended family units, and cooperation between both men and women was essential for the group’s survival. Gender hierarchies, as seen in later agricultural and urban societies, were likely less pronounced during this period.
The advent of agriculture, around 10,000 years ago, marked a significant turning point in human history and fundamentally altered the way societies were organized. This shift from a nomadic lifestyle to settled farming communities led to profound changes in gender relations, with women gradually losing their status and power within the community.
With the development of agriculture came the concept of private property. Men, who often took control of the fields and livestock, began to accumulate wealth and power, while women’s roles became more confined to the domestic sphere. This division contributed to the rise of patriarchal societies where men held the majority of political, social, and economic power. As men controlled the means of production, they also began to control the distribution of resources. Women, who were once integral to the survival of the community, were increasingly viewed as dependents rather than equal contributors. The need to pass property down to heirs further entrenched male dominance. Patriarchal inheritance systems ensured that property and wealth were kept within male bloodlines, reducing women’s autonomy and reinforcing their subordinate position.
The division of labor became more rigid in agricultural societies. Men were typically responsible for working the fields and managing livestock, while women were relegated to domestic tasks such as child-rearing, food preparation, and textile production. This gendered division of labor not only limited women’s economic contributions but also reinforced the idea that women’s primary role was in the home.
As men’s work became associated with economic production and wealth accumulation, women’s work within the home was increasingly devalued. Domestic labor, although essential to the functioning of the household, was seen as less important than the agricultural work performed by men. The emphasis on women’s roles as caregivers and homemakers eventually evolved into the “cult of domesticity,” a cultural norm that glorified women’s roles within the home while excluding them from the public and economic spheres. This ideology persisted for centuries and was a cornerstone of sexist attitudes toward women.
As societies became more complex, religion began to play a significant role in justifying and reinforcing gender hierarchies. In many early civilizations, religious texts and teachings were used to legitimize the subjugation of women and the dominance of men. In early agricultural societies, religious leaders were often male, and religious institutions mirrored the patriarchal structures of society. Male gods were typically associated with power and authority, while female deities were linked to fertility and motherhood. This reinforced the idea that men were naturally suited for leadership and women for domestic roles.
Many of the world’s major religions developed during this period, and their texts often reflect the gender norms of the time. For example, in the Judeo-Christian tradition, the story of Adam and Eve has been interpreted as a justification for male dominance, with Eve’s role in the fall of man used to explain women’s subordinate position in society.
As early civilizations developed legal systems, gender inequality became codified in law. Women were often excluded from political and legal decision-making processes and were subject to laws that restricted their autonomy. In many ancient legal codes, such as the Code of Hammurabi, women were treated as the property of their husbands or fathers. Their legal rights were limited, and they were often viewed as dependents rather than individuals with full legal personhood. Marriage became a tool for controlling women’s sexuality and reproductive capacities. In many early societies, women were required to marry young and produce heirs for their husbands. Laws governing marriage, divorce, and inheritance often favored men and ensured the continuation of patriarchal power structures.
This notion of women as property persisted throughout much of history, particularly in the ancient Greek and Roman worlds. In classical Athens, for example, women had no political rights and were excluded from public life. They were expected to remain in the household, managing domestic affairs, while their husbands represented the family in civic and legal matters. Women were often married off at young ages, their marriages arranged by male relatives, and they had little say in their personal or social destinies. In Roman law, the concept of patria potestas granted the male head of a family nearly absolute control over his wife and children. Although Roman women had more legal rights than their Greek counterparts, they were still largely restricted to domestic roles and subject to male authority.
During the Middle Ages, the subjugation of women intensified, particularly through religious doctrine. Christianity became a powerful force in shaping societal views of gender, with the Church reinforcing patriarchal norms. Women were often depicted as morally weaker than men, prone to sin, and in need of male control. This was especially evident in the Church’s teachings about Eve and the Fall of Man, which placed blame on women for humanity’s original sin. Women’s roles were restricted to those of wives, mothers, and nuns, and they were often denied education and economic independence. The legal systems of medieval Europe further cemented women’s subordinate status, with laws governing marriage, inheritance, and property ownership all designed to maintain male dominance.
One of the most extreme manifestations of sexism during this period was the witch hunts that spread across Europe between the 15th and 18th centuries. The witch trials were not merely a reaction to superstition or fear of the supernatural but were also deeply rooted in the oppression of women. The majority of those accused of witchcraft were women, particularly older, unmarried, or widowed women who lived outside the traditional social order. Women who defied gender norms or threatened male authority—through knowledge of herbal medicine, economic independence, or simply by being outspoken—were often labeled as witches and persecuted. These trials were a way to suppress women’s autonomy and reinforce patriarchal control. Tens of thousands of women were executed during the witch hunts, a testament to how sexism could take on violent and deadly forms.
Despite the overwhelming forces of patriarchy, women throughout history have sought to push back against their oppression, often facing intense backlash. Christine de Pizan, a 15th-century French writer, is one of the earliest known women to publicly challenge misogyny. Her writings, such as The Book of the City of Ladies, defended women’s intellectual capabilities and advocated for gender equality, albeit within the constraints of her time. In the early modern period, women like Mary Wollstonecraft in the 18th century began to argue for women’s rights more explicitly. Wollstonecraft’s seminal work, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, called for equal education for women and questioned the societal structures that kept women in subordinate positions.
As the Enlightenment spread ideas of liberty, equality, and human rights, some women began to demand a place within these emerging frameworks. However, their efforts were often met with hostility. In revolutionary France, for instance, women played significant roles in advocating for political and social change, yet after the revolution, many of their rights were restricted, and they were excluded from full participation in the new democratic order. Similarly, in the United States, the early women’s rights movement was intertwined with abolitionism, as women like Sojourner Truth and Elizabeth Cady Stanton argued for both racial and gender equality. Yet, their activism often faced backlash, with critics arguing that women’s primary roles were domestic and that any attempt to change that was unnatural and dangerous.
The culmination of these struggles came in the form of the women’s suffrage movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. After centuries of being viewed as property and subjected to legal and social subordination, women began to organize more formally to demand political rights, particularly the right to vote. The suffrage movement, which gained momentum in the United States, Britain, and other parts of the world, faced considerable opposition from those who believed that women were too emotional, irrational, or morally inferior to participate in politics. Despite this resistance, the movement achieved significant victories. In 1920, the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution granted women the right to vote, and similar victories were achieved in other countries around the same time.
Sexism today continues to be deeply influenced by long-standing religious beliefs and traditional gender roles, particularly within Christianity, which has played a significant role in shaping societal views on gender. Christianity, like many other major religions, has historically promoted a patriarchal structure, reinforcing the idea that men are the natural leaders of both the family and society. These beliefs, rooted in biblical teachings and centuries of interpretation by religious authorities, have perpetuated the notion that women are naturally subordinate to men, that their primary role is in the home, and that deviation from these roles is against divine order. Although society has evolved significantly, and women now occupy roles far beyond the domestic sphere, these traditional views persist and continue to influence public discourse on gender and sexism.
These religiously rooted beliefs have been ingrained in societal structures and norms for centuries, influencing how gender roles are perceived and enforced. The idea that women should prioritize domestic duties and caregiving over professional or leadership roles stems from the long-standing division of labor that arose with agricultural societies, where physical strength was often associated with men’s work outside the home, while women were relegated to caregiving and domestic tasks. This rigid view of gender roles has continued to influence modern attitudes, even as women increasingly enter the workforce and take on leadership positions in politics, business, and other sectors.
Despite the significant progress women have made in achieving equality in many areas of life, these traditional gender roles still hold sway in many parts of society, and they are often reinforced by religious teachings. Women in positions of power or those who pursue careers over family are sometimes viewed with suspicion or judgment, especially in more conservative or religious communities. The pressure for women to conform to traditional roles of wife and mother remains strong, even as the economic realities of modern life often necessitate that women work outside the home. The expectation that women should balance full-time careers with primary caregiving responsibilities perpetuates inequality, as women are often left shouldering a disproportionate share of domestic labor, even when they are equally or more financially successful than their male partners.
Additionally, the increasing visibility of transgender people and the broader conversation about gender identity challenge these traditional notions of gender that have been upheld by societal norms. Transgender individuals, whose gender identity does not align with their biological sex, disrupt the binary understanding of gender that has long been promoted by Christianity and other religious doctrines. The very existence of transgender people calls into question the rigid male-female binary and highlights the need for a more nuanced understanding of gender.
The backlash against transgender rights, often led by religious groups, reflects a deeper resistance to revisiting long-standing gender roles. Many conservative religious organizations argue that acknowledging transgender identities undermines the natural order of gender as ordained by God. This resistance is seen in policies that limit transgender individuals’ access to healthcare, public accommodations, and even the ability to change their gender markers on legal documents. These efforts to maintain rigid gender norms not only harm transgender people but also reinforce the broader system of sexism that affects all genders. By refusing to accept the fluidity and complexity of gender, these traditional views hold back progress toward true gender equality.
As society evolves, with women and transgender individuals increasingly challenging the confines of traditional gender roles, there is a pressing need to revisit and rethink these outdated ideas. The reality is that gender is not simply a binary construct tied to reproduction, and the roles that men and women are expected to play should no longer be dictated by religious or historical norms. In a world where women are now CEOs, scientists, politicians, and activists, and where transgender people are increasingly visible and accepted, clinging to rigid gender roles only serves to perpetuate inequality and discrimination.
The conversation around gender needs to shift from one that is rooted in religious tradition and patriarchal norms to one that recognizes the complexity and diversity of human experiences. This means rethinking the roles that men and women are expected to play, both in the workplace and in the home, and acknowledging that gender identity is not solely defined by biological sex. It requires a dismantling of the cultural and religious narratives that have long held women and gender minorities back and creating a society that values people for their abilities, contributions, and identities, rather than their adherence to outdated gender roles.
Ultimately, the fight for gender equality is not just about women's rights or transgender rights but about creating a more just and equitable society for all. Revisiting and rethinking gender roles is a crucial part of that process. As we move further into the 21st century, it is essential to recognize that sexism—whether rooted in religion or societal norms—can no longer be justified by appeals to tradition. Instead, we must embrace a future where gender is seen as fluid, diverse, and based on individual autonomy and equality.
But we haven’t.
The repeal of Roe v. Wade in 2022, through the Supreme Court’s decision in Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization, represents a significant setback for women's rights in the United States. By overturning the federal protection for abortion, the Court has not only restricted access to reproductive healthcare but also reinforced patriarchal control over women’s bodies. This ruling disproportionately impacts women, particularly those in marginalized communities, by placing reproductive decisions in the hands of state governments, many of which are heavily influenced by conservative, religious ideologies. It underscores the lingering influence of long-standing gender roles and religious beliefs that view women primarily as vessels for reproduction rather than autonomous individuals capable of making decisions about their own lives. The repeal highlights how deeply sexism remains embedded in societal structures, where women's rights can be easily revoked based on religious and patriarchal ideals.
The repeal of Roe infringes on women’s fundamental rights to bodily autonomy, perpetuating the idea that women's reproductive choices are not their own but are subject to the approval of male-dominated institutions. This decision illustrates how deeply traditional gender roles—rooted in religious teachings that emphasize women’s role as mothers—continue to shape modern policies. By denying women control over their reproductive health, this ruling not only forces many into potentially unsafe situations but also reinforces the sexist notion that women should prioritize motherhood over personal or professional aspirations. As society grapples with evolving concepts of gender and equality, the repeal of Roe v. Wade serves as a reminder that progress toward gender justice is far from guaranteed and that deeply ingrained patriarchal norms continue to shape the lives of women today.
The irony of the Statue of Liberty, a powerful symbol of freedom and justice, being depicted as a woman becomes stark when viewed through the lens of history, where women have had to fight tirelessly for the very liberties she represents. For centuries, women have been excluded from the rights and freedoms symbolized by Lady Liberty, battling against sexism and systemic oppression. From suffrage to reproductive rights, including the landmark Roe v. Wade decision, women have continually had to demand the autonomy and equality that should have been inherent in the ideals of liberty. In modern times, as these hard-won rights face renewed threats, the image of Lady Liberty stands as a reminder of both the progress made and the ongoing struggle women endure in their pursuit of true freedom. The statue, a beacon of hope for so many, encapsulates the paradox of a world where the fight for women's liberty has been—and continues to be—one of the longest and hardest.
