House of cards
Throughout the vast expanse of human history, three technological breakthroughs—fire, the plow, and the extraction of oil—have had the most profound and far-reaching impacts on our evolution, transforming not only how humans interact with their environment but also the course of civilization itself. Each of these innovations marked a critical leap in humanity’s ability to harness and control energy, unlocking new possibilities for survival, growth, and dominance over nature. Fire, the first of these transformative technologies, provided warmth, protection, and the means to cook food, fundamentally altering our biology and social structures. The invention of the plow revolutionized agriculture, allowing for the efficient cultivation of land, the production of food surpluses, and the rise of complex, settled civilizations. Finally, the discovery and extraction of oil in the modern era unleashed the immense, concentrated energy reserves stored within the Earth for millions of years, powering the industrial revolution and shaping the global economy that drives the modern world. Together, these three technologies not only fueled the progression of human societies but also profoundly impacted the planet, altering ecosystems, accelerating resource consumption, and laying the foundation for the challenges humanity faces today.
Fire, one of the most fundamental and transformative forces in human history, played a pivotal role in shaping human evolution. The ability to control and harness fire represented a turning point in the development of early hominins, allowing them to manipulate energy in ways that profoundly impacted their biological, social, and technological trajectories. Fire enabled humans to transform raw materials into cooked food, protect themselves from predators, survive in a wide range of environments, and eventually develop complex tools and technologies. The mastery of fire can be seen as the foundation upon which the control of energy—and thus the rise of modern technology—was built.
The control of fire is estimated to have been mastered by early hominins around 1 million years ago, though evidence suggests that Homo erectus may have been using fire as early as 1.5 million years ago. Fire’s influence on human evolution was profound, particularly in terms of biology. One of the most significant impacts was on diet and digestion. Prior to the advent of cooking, early hominins, like all animals, consumed raw food. The act of cooking food over fire allowed early humans to consume a wider variety of foods, as it broke down tough fibers and made plant-based foods easier to digest. While less common, cooked meat also became more palatable and nutritious, as cooking denatured proteins and killed harmful bacteria and parasites. This shift in diet likely contributed to key evolutionary changes, including the reduction in the size of the digestive tract and the increase in brain size. The metabolic energy that was previously dedicated to processing raw, fibrous food could now be diverted to brain development.
Harvard biologist Richard Wrangham has argued that cooking was a major driver behind the evolution of larger brains in early humans. The increase in caloric intake from cooked food provided the necessary fuel for the energy-hungry brain, allowing Homo erectus and later Homo sapiens to evolve greater cognitive capabilities. As brain size increased, so did humans’ capacity for tool-making, social cooperation, and communication, setting the stage for the development of more complex technologies.
Fire also had profound social implications. The control of fire allowed early humans to create communal spaces where they could gather for warmth and protection. This led to the development of more complex social structures and cultural practices. The central fire pit became a place for storytelling, sharing food, and strengthening social bonds, which may have contributed to the development of language and cooperative behavior.
Fire also served as a powerful tool for protection and expansion into new environments. Early humans could use fire to ward off predators and insects, which increased their chances of survival in otherwise dangerous areas. The ability to generate heat allowed humans to move into colder climates, where they could thrive by creating controlled microenvironments through the use of fire. This adaptability enabled Homo sapiens to spread across the globe, populating diverse ecosystems from the African savannas to the frigid tundras of Europe and Asia.
Fire’s transformative impact on human evolution extended beyond biology and culture—it laid the foundation for the development of technology. The control of fire marked humanity's first major step in harnessing and manipulating energy to alter the physical world. Early humans used fire for a variety of technological innovations that shaped their material culture and survival strategies. One of the earliest technological uses of fire was in tool-making. By heating rocks and stones, early humans were able to crack them open more easily, producing sharper tools for hunting, butchering, and crafting. Fire also played a role in the development of adhesives, such as resin and tar, which were used to attach stone tools to wooden handles, creating more effective composite tools. In addition to improving tool-making, fire allowed humans to modify natural materials in unprecedented ways. The process of hardening wooden spears in fire, for example, made these early weapons more durable and effective for hunting. The control of fire also led to the creation of pottery and ceramics. By firing clay in open flames, early humans could produce durable containers for storing food and water, marking an important step in the development of more sedentary agricultural societies.
Perhaps one of the most significant technological advancements made possible by fire was the smelting of metals. Around 6,000 years ago, humans began using fire to extract metals such as copper and tin from ores. This development ushered in the Bronze Age, where the alloying of copper and tin to create bronze revolutionized tool-making, agriculture, and warfare. The ability to melt and manipulate metal represented a major leap in human technological progress, marking the beginning of metallurgy, which would eventually lead to the Iron Age and the industrial revolutions that followed.
Fire was humanity’s first successful attempt at controlling energy, and it set the stage for the long history of technological innovation based on energy manipulation. By mastering fire, humans demonstrated their ability to harness a natural force and use it to modify their environment. This capacity for controlling energy is what allowed humans to gradually evolve into the technological species we are today. The manipulation of fire in early human history can be seen as the precursor to the later exploitation of other energy sources, such as wind, water, and fossil fuels. As human societies grew more complex and their energy needs increased, they sought new ways to harness and control energy. The use of windmills, waterwheels, and eventually steam engines during the industrial revolution represented further steps in humanity’s mastery over energy. These advances allowed for the large-scale production of goods, the mechanization of agriculture, and the development of transportation networks that connected the world in unprecedented ways.
As we look at the development of technology throughout human history, fire can be seen as the foundation of all subsequent innovations. The ability to control fire allowed early humans to transcend the limitations of their environment and gain greater control over their survival. This mastery of energy not only transformed human evolution but also paved the way for the technologies that define the modern world.
As the control of fire laid the foundation for humanity's mastery over energy, allowing for the manipulation of nature and the development of early technology, the invention of the plow became the next pivotal advancement, revolutionizing agriculture and transforming human societies from nomadic bands into complex, settled civilizations.
The invention of the plow also stands as one of the most transformative moments in human history, dramatically altering the trajectory of civilization. Prior to the development of agriculture, human societies functioned primarily as nomadic bands of hunters and gatherers. They relied on hunting wild animals and foraging for plants, a subsistence lifestyle that restricted the size of populations and the complexity of social structures. However, with the invention of the plow, humanity’s relationship with the land, food, and energy fundamentally shifted. This innovation unlocked an unprecedented surplus of energy, enabling the rise of complex civilizations, centralized power structures, and new ideologies that reshaped human culture, including religious systems.
Before the advent of the plow, human societies were mobile and highly dependent on the natural environment. Their survival relied on hunting animals and gathering wild plants. Energy in this context was directly tied to human effort: people expended energy to hunt, gather, and move to new areas when resources became scarce. This limited energy surplus, meaning there was barely enough food to support basic survival, let alone a growing population or large-scale communities. The nomadic lifestyle ensured that human settlements remained small, and any significant accumulation of wealth was difficult, as resources had to be consumed immediately or carried to new locations.
Religious systems during this time reflected humanity's intimate relationship with nature and animals, often portraying both male and female gods and goddesses who embodied various natural forces. Many early spiritual beliefs centered around animism, the view that natural objects, animals, and plants possessed spiritual significance and that the world was alive with divine energy. Animals, in particular, were revered not only for their role as a key source of sustenance but also for their symbolic and spiritual importance. Hunter-gatherer societies often worshiped animals as deities or viewed them as spiritual guides, with male and female gods and goddesses personifying different aspects of nature. For example, goddesses of fertility and earth were commonly worshipped, reflecting the nurturing qualities of nature, while male gods might represent the hunt, the sun, or the sky.
Rituals in these societies focused on appeasing and honoring the natural forces that governed their lives. These deities, whether male or female, were seen as vital to maintaining the delicate balance between humans and nature, ensuring a successful hunt, favorable migration, or abundant harvest. The cyclical rhythms of hunting, migration, and the changing seasons were deeply intertwined with religious practices, and these rhythms dictated much of the spiritual life of early humans. The gendered nature of deities reflected humanity’s understanding of balance and harmony in the world, where both masculine and feminine forces played critical roles in sustaining life. As humans transitioned to agriculture and eventually developed more complex societies, the roles of male and female gods evolved, but the deep spiritual connection to nature remained a core aspect of early religious systems.
The plow revolutionized agriculture by allowing humans to cultivate land far more efficiently than by hand or with primitive tools. The earliest versions of the plow, thought to have been invented around 4,000 BCE in Mesopotamia, were simple wooden tools drawn by human labor. Eventually, these early plows were modified to be pulled by animals, such as oxen, which allowed for the cultivation of larger fields at a faster rate. This shift from manual labor to animal-powered agriculture significantly increased productivity.
With the plow, humans could till the soil more deeply and more consistently, which improved crop yields. For the first time in history, agricultural societies could generate a surplus of food. This surplus created a buffer against times of scarcity, reduced the need for constant migration, and supported the development of permanent settlements. In essence, the plow transformed energy from a scarce resource tied to immediate survival into a resource that could be stored, controlled, and traded. The energy surplus generated by agricultural production supported population growth and allowed human societies to develop more complex economic and social systems.
With a reliable food surplus, societies were able to shift from subsistence living to specialization of labor. No longer required to focus solely on farming or gathering, people began to take on diverse roles such as tool-making, trade, governance, and religious duties. This diversification of labor, coupled with the rise of private land ownership, became the foundation for the development of cities, states, and eventually empires. The capacity to sustain larger, settled populations without the need for constant migration facilitated the growth of the first civilizations in regions like Mesopotamia, the Nile Valley, the Indus Valley, and ancient China. As these empires expanded, class systems emerged, with wealth and power increasingly concentrated among landowners and ruling elites, marking the beginning of structured social hierarchies, the widening gap between the rich and the poor, and the beginning of slavery.
As the shift from hunting and gathering to agriculture took hold, marked by the advent of the plow and the ability to produce a reliable food surplus, societal roles began to transform dramatically—including gender roles. In hunter-gatherer societies, men and women typically had more fluid roles, with both contributing to the survival of the group. Men often hunted while women gathered, but the overall structure was relatively egalitarian, with both genders having access to vital tasks that ensured the group's survival. Additionally, the worship of both male and female deities in early animistic religions reinforced the importance of gender balance in maintaining harmony with nature.
However, with the advent of settled agriculture and the ability to produce surplus food, societies grew more complex, leading to the specialization of labor. As not everyone was needed to work the fields or gather food, distinct economic and social roles emerged. Men increasingly took on roles associated with plowing, livestock management, and the defense of agricultural settlements, as these tasks required physical strength and were considered critical to the success of farming. Women, meanwhile, often became associated with domestic duties, child-rearing, and tasks that could be done closer to home, such as food preparation and textile production. This division of labor began to create more rigid gender roles, with men typically associated with public, economic, and political spheres, and women often relegated to private, domestic spheres.
As agricultural societies expanded, so did the need for governance, trade, and religious duties. Men largely assumed positions of power in governance, trade, and religion, as their control over food production and landownership became intertwined with authority. In patriarchal societies, the growing importance of land and resources concentrated power among men, and this extended into religious systems. Religious hierarchies began to reflect these social changes, often elevating male gods and patriarchal structures. The prominence of male gods representing the sky, sun, and authority grew, while female deities, once central to fertility, the earth, and nurturing, were often subordinated or reinterpreted within male-dominated religious frameworks.
This shift toward a male-dominated agricultural society deeply impacted gender relations, as men’s control over the primary sources of wealth and power—land and food—led to the marginalization of women’s roles in both the economy and governance. In many early civilizations, such as Mesopotamia, Egypt, and ancient Greece, laws and cultural practices began to reflect the growing division between the sexes, often limiting women’s legal rights and mobility while reinforcing male authority in family and public life.
The increasing prominence of male gods in religious systems also reinforced these gender divisions. Where earlier animistic and agrarian societies had more balanced or dual-gendered pantheons, agricultural civilizations often elevated male deities to supreme positions of power, symbolizing order, authority, and control over nature. This shift mirrored the patriarchal control over agricultural production and social organization. Female deities, particularly those tied to fertility and nature, retained importance but were increasingly seen as subservient to male gods or as figures associated more with the domestic sphere, reflecting women's more restricted societal roles.
Thus, the transition from hunter-gatherer lifestyles to settled agricultural societies not only revolutionized economic and social structures but also fundamentally altered gender roles. The previously more egalitarian structure of hunter-gatherer societies gave way to more rigid divisions of labor and authority, with men assuming dominant roles in governance, religion, and economic life. These changes would have lasting impacts, influencing the patriarchal structures that dominated many early civilizations and shaped gender roles for millennia.
Transformative technologies, once introduced, become obligate for survival, meaning that societies must adopt and adapt to them in order to thrive. Just as fire was essential for early humans to cook food, protect themselves, and endure harsh environments, subsequent technologies like the plow became necessary for agricultural productivity and the survival of increasingly complex societies. These innovations didn't just provide new tools; they fundamentally altered the fabric of human life, requiring people to change their behaviors, social structures, beliefs, and cultures to align with the new technological realities.
With the adoption of fire, humans had to adjust their patterns of daily life—cooking became essential, social gatherings formed around the hearth, and fire’s control provided protection, fostering the development of communal living. Similarly, the plow transformed agricultural societies by requiring humans to settle in one place, domesticate animals, and organize labor around the cultivation of crops. This shift to settled farming communities and the ability to produce food surpluses led to the rise of larger populations and more permanent settlements.
In turn, these technologies demanded changes in social hierarchies, religions, and economies. Agricultural surpluses enabled specialization of labor, which created class distinctions as some individuals accumulated wealth and land while others worked as laborers. As social hierarchies became more rigid, political structures like cities and states emerged to manage the growing complexity of society. Religious systems also evolved, shifting from animistic beliefs tied to nature and animals toward organized religions that reflected the agricultural way of life. Male gods of sky and land often rose to prominence, symbolizing control over nature and society, while the once-balanced reverence for female deities tied to fertility and the earth began to diminish.
Economically, societies shifted from a focus on survival through immediate consumption of food to the management of surplus and the accumulation of wealth, leading to the development of trade networks, taxation, and the concept of property ownership. The plow, like fire before it, became an essential technology that reshaped how humans interacted with the environment and with each other, forcing them to adopt new social, religious, and economic systems.
Just as the control of fire and the plow revolutionized agriculture by harnessing the power of the earth to produce abundant food and sustain growing populations, the extraction of oil from the ground marked an even greater technological leap, unleashing a vast and concentrated source of energy that would fuel the modern industrial world and become the most consequential technological advancement in human history.
The unearthing of oil stands as one of the most transformative moments in human history, providing access to vast stores of energy that had been locked within the Earth for millions of years. This discovery and the subsequent development of technologies to extract, refine, and utilize oil fundamentally reshaped the global economy, society, and the environment. Oil became the lifeblood of the modern world, fueling everything from transportation to industry, electricity generation to agriculture. Its influence extends far beyond the energy sector, deeply entangling itself with the very structure of economic growth, as Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and the functioning of modern economies are intrinsically tied to the consumption of oil.
Oil, a fossil fuel, represents the energy-rich remnants of ancient plants and animals that lived millions of years ago. Over time, these organic materials were buried under layers of sediment, subjected to heat and pressure, and transformed into hydrocarbons. The energy stored in oil is essentially solar energy, captured by plants through photosynthesis millions of years ago and converted into chemical energy over geological time. When humans learned to extract and burn oil, they were unlocking this ancient reservoir of energy, which had been accumulating and compacting for eons beneath the Earth’s surface.
The energy density of oil is unmatched by any other natural resource. A single barrel of oil contains an extraordinary amount of usable energy, sufficient to power machinery, generate electricity, and propel vehicles over vast distances. Remarkably, one barrel of oil is equivalent to five years of human labor. By harnessing this stored energy, humanity was no longer constrained by the limited power of traditional sources like firewood, wind, or animal labor. Oil offered a highly concentrated, portable, and efficient energy source that could be deployed on an industrial scale, propelling economic growth to unprecedented levels and transforming modern civilization.
Once oil became accessible in the mid-19th century, it quickly revolutionized every aspect of human life. The first major use of oil was as a source of lighting, replacing whale oil in lamps. But as the technology to refine oil advanced, it found far broader applications. The development of internal combustion engines in the late 19th and early 20th centuries unlocked the potential of oil as a fuel for transportation. Automobiles, airplanes, ships, and trains all became powered by oil, enabling unprecedented mobility and the creation of a global transportation network.
Oil's impact extended beyond transportation. It became the key energy source for industrial production, electricity generation, and heating. In factories, oil-powered machinery allowed for mass production, which in turn lowered costs and increased output. Agricultural machinery, such as tractors and combine harvesters, ran on oil, leading to the mechanization of farming and a massive increase in food production. The widespread availability of affordable food, transportation, and consumer goods—all made possible by oil—dramatically improved living standards around the world.
In addition to being a direct energy source, oil is the raw material for countless products that form the foundation of modern life. Petrochemicals derived from oil are used to make plastics, synthetic rubber, fertilizers, and pharmaceuticals. Nearly every product we use, from electronics to clothing to packaging, has some connection to oil. The omnipresence of oil in modern industry and daily life highlights its indispensable role in shaping the world as we know it.
The relationship between energy consumption and economic growth is fundamental to modern economies, and oil plays a central role in this dynamic. Gross Domestic Product (GDP)—a measure of the total value of goods and services produced in a country—is closely tied to energy use. Historically, as nations industrialized and increased their energy consumption, their GDPs expanded in tandem. This is because energy, particularly oil, is required to power the machines, factories, transportation networks, and infrastructure that drive economic activity.
Oil's ability to provide cheap, abundant energy has been a key factor in the explosive economic growth witnessed in the 20th and 21st centuries. From the post-World War II boom in the United States and Europe to the rapid industrialization of countries like China and India, oil has been the primary energy source fueling this expansion. Without the availability of oil, much of the technological progress and economic development of the modern era would have been impossible.
The close link between energy consumption and GDP, often referred to as the energy-GDP tether, underscores how deeply economic output is reliant on energy. In simple terms, the more energy a nation consumes, the more it is able to produce. This connection becomes even more critical when viewed through the lens of capitalism, a system that by definition demands continuous growth to sustain profits and expand markets. Capitalism is inherently tied to increasing production, which requires ever more energy to fuel it. Despite efforts to decouple economic growth from energy consumption—especially in light of climate change and the push for renewable energy—oil remains deeply woven into the fabric of the global economy. The infrastructure of most industrialized nations, from transportation networks and electrical grids to manufacturing plants, still depends heavily on oil. Currently, the energy-GDP tether is at 9.99 to 1, meaning that nearly ten units of energy are required for every unit of economic growth, while the materials-to-GDP tether stands at 1 to 1.
Since 1900, the world has seen an average material growth rate of 3% annually, driven by the capitalist imperative of expanding production and consumption. If this trajectory continues, both energy and material consumption will double in 25 years, and double again in another 25. However, this relentless path is unsustainable. Oil reserves, the primary energy source for this growth, would likely be depleted within 35-45 years, assuming no significant technological breakthroughs or drastic cuts in consumption. Capitalism’s constant need for expansion in a world of finite resources is a fundamental contradiction, as infinite growth is impossible in a system with limited energy and materials. By continuing on this path, we risk depleting the very resources that drive economic progress, bringing global economies closer to collapse.
The influence of oil extends far beyond its direct role in energy production. It forms the backbone of modern capitalism, supporting global supply chains, trade, and production. Oil fuels the global economy's vast logistics systems—ships, trucks, and planes—enabling just-in-time production and the movement of goods across the world. It’s also a critical input for the manufacturing of goods, from petrochemicals to everyday consumer products. The capitalist global economy depends on this fossil fuel to function efficiently, making any disruptions to oil supply, such as the oil shocks of the 1970s, catastrophic for global trade, inflation, and overall economic stability.
The capitalist system, driven by the need for perpetual growth, has also embedded itself into the geopolitics of oil. Countries rich in oil reserves hold significant power, shaping international markets and driving economic decisions. The cost of oil affects nearly every sector, from agriculture, which relies on oil-based fertilizers and machinery, to high-tech industries dependent on petrochemical products. As oil prices fluctuate, they directly impact the cost of food, goods, and services, leading to inflation and economic instability. This dependency reveals a critical flaw in capitalism: its short-term pursuit of profit at the expense of long-term sustainability. Continuing to rely on oil to fuel capitalist expansion will only exacerbate environmental degradation, resource depletion, and economic inequality, making it imperative to rethink the way we structure growth and energy consumption.
The current global economy and human lifestyle are unsustainably dependent on energy—especially oil—a consequence largely driven by capitalism’s relentless pursuit of profit and growth. Capitalism, with its need for continuous expansion and consumption, has fueled an insatiable demand for energy, making oil the lifeblood of industries, transportation, and global trade. This system prioritizes short-term economic gain over long-term sustainability, leading to rampant exploitation of finite resources like oil without regard for environmental consequences. The capitalist model encourages overproduction and consumption, resulting in a perpetual increase in energy demand that accelerates climate change, depletes ecosystems, and exacerbates social inequalities. Fossil fuel companies, which profit immensely from this dependency, have a vested interest in maintaining the status quo, resisting the shift to renewable energy to protect their bottom line. As a result, the capitalist-driven global economy has become dangerously intertwined with oil, locking humanity into a system that is both environmentally destructive and ultimately unsustainable, pushing the planet toward ecological collapse for the sake of endless profit.
Humanity’s ability to harness energy and create surpluses through transformative inventions—fire, the plow, and oil—has undoubtedly propelled human evolution and shaped civilization, but this progress has come at a deep cost to the planet. Fire allowed early humans to cook food, protect themselves, and expand into new environments, but it also marked the beginning of deforestation and habitat destruction as humans exploited natural resources to fuel their survival. The plow, while revolutionizing agriculture and enabling the production of surplus food that fueled the rise of cities and empires, fundamentally altered the relationship between humans and nature. As societies moved from hunting and gathering to settled agriculture, religious beliefs evolved. Animistic respect for animals as spiritual beings gave way to a belief in human dominion over nature. Animals, once revered as sacred and connected to spiritual forces, were now seen as tools of labor or resources to be managed, reflecting a broader shift toward control and exploitation of the natural world.
This transformation also extended to human relationships. The creation of agricultural surpluses led to the rise of social hierarchies, private land ownership, and increasing inequality. Human societies became stratified, with landowners and rulers consolidating power over others, creating divisions that undermined mutual respect and cooperation. The plow not only redefined humanity’s relationship with nature but also contributed to new social structures that valued wealth and power over collective well-being, reinforcing inequality and exploitation within human societies.
Oil, the most consequential of these energy sources, further amplified this pattern. It powered the industrial revolution, driving global economic growth, but at the expense of the planet. The extraction, refining, and burning of oil have devastated ecosystems, driven global warming, and entrenched a system of resource dependency that continues to exploit both people and nature. Each of these innovations—fire, the plow, and oil—enabled humanity to dominate its environment, but they also fostered a mindset of control and extraction that disconnected humans from the ecological and social balance that once guided human life. In the pursuit of energy and growth, humans have sacrificed the sustainability of the planet and compromised the respect once given to both nature and each other, leading to the environmental and social crises we face today. But this pattern of domination and exploitation of energy sources is not unique to humans, it reflects a deeper biological drive observed throughout nature.
The Maximum Power Principle (4th Law of Thermodynamics) states that organisms, ecosystems, and systems in general self-organize to maximize their access to and use of energy gradients. This principle highlights the fact that biological systems naturally evolve to harness the most available energy in order to survive and thrive. In other words, access to energy is a core driver of evolutionary success. Organisms that fail to exploit available energy sources will not survive, as others will step in to fill that ecological niche, making use of the available resources. This concept is known as niche-filling, where species adapt to occupy a specific role in their ecosystem by exploiting the energy that is most accessible to them.
In nature, organisms use energy directly to fuel their bodies. For example, animals consume food to power their metabolic processes, and plants capture sunlight to drive photosynthesis. However, the efficiency of energy use is not uniform across all organisms. Kleiber’s Law describes the relationship between an organism’s metabolic rate and its size, stating that the metabolic rate of an animal scales to the ¾ power of its mass. This means that larger animals or organisms tend to burn energy more efficiently relative to their size than smaller ones, but all organisms, regardless of size, self-organize to maximize the energy they can extract from their environment. Access to more energy allows for greater growth, reproduction, and survival, making energy exploitation a fundamental force in the process of natural selection.
This drive for energy is mirrored on a larger scale by human society, particularly with the advent of modern technologies that have allowed us to exploit energy sources far beyond the biological calories required to sustain our bodies. Humans use approximately 2,000 calories per day to sustain bodily functions, but in reality, we consume vastly more energy exosomatically—outside of our bodies. This is where Jevons Paradox comes into play. Jevons Paradox observes that as energy efficiency improves, overall energy consumption increases rather than decreases. This paradox is evident in agriculture, where advancements in farming technology allowed us to cultivate more land with fewer resources, thereby creating surplus calories. However, instead of reducing energy use, these efficiencies led to even greater energy consumption by expanding agricultural production to support growing populations and economic activities. Similarly, oil extraction technologies have become more efficient, allowing us to access deeper and more remote reserves. But rather than scaling back energy use, societies continue to expand, further accelerating oil consumption.
Humanity's energy consumption has exploded as a result of this feedback loop of increasing efficiency, availability, and demand. While our bodies require 2,000 calories per day, modern societies use an estimated 200,000 calories per person per day exosomatically through the energy used in transportation, manufacturing, communication, and other industrial activities. This 100:1 ratio of exosomatic energy use represents the "energy wand" we wield, allowing us to shape and manipulate the environment on a massive scale. Just as organisms evolve to maximize the energy available to them, human societies have evolved to maximize the extraction and use of energy far beyond our biological needs. This vast increase in energy use, especially from fossil fuels like oil, has allowed for unprecedented industrial and technological growth, but it has also created a system that is increasingly dependent on continuous energy consumption.
The global economy is now too large and interconnected for any major power to risk cutting back on energy use without falling behind in the global competition for resources. For instance, if the United States were to significantly reduce its energy consumption, it risks losing geopolitical and economic ground to countries like China or Russia, which may continue expanding their energy use. This creates a dilemma: reducing energy consumption is necessary to address environmental concerns, but doing so in isolation could have serious economic and geopolitical consequences. The modern global economy, like biological organisms, has organized itself to exploit energy to the maximum, but at a scale that is now threatening the very ecosystems that sustain it.
The next invention, then, has to occur in our minds—we must fundamentally shift how we think about consumption, growth, and our relationship with the planet. We need to move away from the destructive patterns of consumerism, capitalism, and globalism that prioritize short-term profit over long-term sustainability. Instead, we must embrace a mindset that values conservation, balance, and a respect for the Earth’s finite resources. This mental shift involves recognizing that perpetual economic growth, driven by insatiable consumption and the exploitation of energy, is unsustainable in a closed ecological system.
We need to rethink the core tenets of capitalism, which views success as endless expansion, and refocus our economies on well-being, resource stewardship, and equitable distribution. The measure of progress should no longer be GDP growth, but the health of our ecosystems, the sustainability of our energy use, and the quality of life for all people. This means moving away from a system that encourages constant consumption of goods and energy, toward one that prioritizes sufficiency, efficiency, and the preservation of resources for future generations.
In this reimagined future, localism and self-sufficiency should take precedence over globalism’s long supply chains and dependency on fossil fuels. By relocalizing production, reducing waste, and cultivating renewable energy sources, we can create economies that are more resilient, sustainable, and less vulnerable to the fluctuations of global markets. This mental transformation must extend to every aspect of society, from individuals reducing their consumption habits to governments and corporations adopting policies that support regenerative practices.
Ultimately, the next great invention will not be a technological fix, but a collective change in how we think and live—one that aligns with the principles of sustainability and balance that the planet demands.
Sadly, history has shown that humanity often resists change until a crisis forces it upon us, and the shift to a sustainable future may only come after the devastating consequences of unchecked global warming have already played out. As climate change accelerates, we are likely to witness increasingly severe and frequent storms, rising sea levels, and extreme weather events that will devastate communities, particularly in vulnerable regions. The human cost will be immense, with millions displaced as climate refugees, struggling to find safety in a world where borders are already tightening and resources are becoming more scarce.
The economic fallout will reverberate across every nation, with soaring costs for food, water, and energy bearing down most heavily on the working class and vulnerable populations, while governments and economies falter under the immense pressure of rebuilding and adapting to a destabilized climate. Infrastructure damage, the loss of arable land, and reduced biodiversity will erode the core of global economies, driving widespread collapse and intensifying the stark divisions between social classes. The wealthy will retreat into fortified enclaves, consolidating their control over money, property, and essential resources, using their power to shield themselves from the worst impacts while the majority struggles to survive. This consolidation of wealth and resources will deepen inequality, creating a stark divide between those who can afford protection and those left to face the growing instability. Political systems, already fragile in many regions, will buckle under the strain as leaders grapple with escalating social unrest, mass migration, and resource shortages. With the poor and middle class bearing the brunt of the environmental disasters, class tensions will reach a breaking point, risking not only political collapse but also widespread social conflict as the privileged few seek to maintain control in the face of growing desperation.
In the face of this turmoil, resource wars may become more frequent, as nations and corporations scramble to secure dwindling supplies of food, fresh water, and energy. Geopolitical tensions will rise as competing powers fight over access to what remains of oil reserves, fertile land, and strategic waterways. These conflicts, driven by the scarcity we created through our insatiable consumption, will further destabilize regions and lead to further human suffering.
Only after the catastrophic consequences of climate change manifest—after we have lost untold lives, ecosystems, and livelihoods—will the world begin to make the deep, systemic changes necessary for survival. By then, we may be forced into a future where the luxuries of global capitalism are no longer viable, and we must face the harsh reality of what it means to live within the Earth’s ecological limits. In this post-collapse world, we may finally realize that infinite growth was always an illusion, and that sustainability is the only path forward.
But by that time, the costs will be far higher, and the opportunities for a just, equitable transition will be fewer. We will be forced to adopt new ways of living—simpler, more local, and more regenerative—not out of choice or foresight, but out of necessity in the face of a planet pushed to its breaking point. And in the end, it may be too late to fully repair the damage done, leaving future generations to bear the burden of our inaction and short-sightedness.
Only then, in the face of overwhelming collapse, will we be forced to change our behavior, our religions, and our class structures to reflect the natural world that we inhabit—just as we did after the advent of fire, the plow, and oil. The difference this time, however, is the hope that this transformation will be for the better. In the past, each technological leap brought with it dominance over nature and deepened societal inequalities, but in the aftermath of environmental devastation, we will need to embrace a more harmonious existence, one that respects the limits of our planet and fosters equity among its inhabitants. Whether we are capable of such a shift remains to be seen, but it may be the only way to secure a future for generations to come.
